About “Worship”

You say that the New Testament does not use “worship” language to refer to the Christian assembly. What about Acts 13:2? It says, “While they were worshiping the Lord and fasting, the Holy Spirit said, ‘Set apart for me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them.’”

The Greek word for “worshiping” in Acts 13:2 is λειτουργούντων. Some English versions translate λειτουργούντων as “worshiping” (ESV, NAB, NIV, NLT, and NRSV), some translate it as “ministering” or “ministered” (ASV, Geneva Bible, HCSB, KJV, NASB1995, NKJV), while others translate it as “serving” (Amplified, Good News, Lexham, NASB2020, NET). The differences in these translations should tell you that we have a translation problem here.

A key question for Acts 13:2 is, “Does the passage describe a church assembly?” Some scholars believe that λειτουργούντων refers to a full assembly of the Antioch Christians. However, it seems likely that the activity here involves only the small group of five prophets and teachers. In verse 1, Luke specifically focuses on these five by naming each of them and adding some identifying details (e.g., “Simeon who was called Niger, and Lucius of Cyrene, and Manaen who had been brought up with Herod the tetrarch”). Why would Luke provide such detail about the five if he is actually discussing the activity of the entire church?

But the crucial question is, “Are these five engaging in ‘worship’?” and “If so, does ‘worship’ here denote performing congregational activities?”

There are four reasons why λειτουργούντων should not be translated as “worshiping.” First, the λειτουργ- terms are found 15 times in the NT, and they are rarely translated as “worship.” For example, the NASB never translates λειτουργέω or its cognates as “worship,” in its 15 occurrences in the NT or in any of its 150 occurrences in the LXX. All this leaves a question of whether “worshiping” is a legitimate translation in Acts 13:2. Since there is a significant difference between “worshiping” and “ministering,” there is some doubt as to whether “worship” translates λειτουργέω.

Second, the word ‘worship’ is not even mentioned when the λειτουργ- terms are defined in common Greek lexicons such as BDAG, Louw & Nida, Liddell & Scott, and Moulton & Milligan. According to BDAG, the primary definition of λειτουργέω is “to render special formal service … of cultic or ritual responsibilities.”

Third, the widespread use of the λειτουργ- word group in the LXX does not support translating the term as “worship.” The 150 λειτουργέω-related terms in the LXX commonly refer to cultic work of priests in the Holy Place of the temple. In none of these cases is the OT text translated as “worship” in the NASB or the ESV.

Fourth, in the only time that Luke uses the λειτουργ- word group, he understands it to refer to “priestly service” in the temple (Lk 1:23), which is consistent with the use of the term in the LXX. Since the term is highly likely a reference to priestly service, the question is now, “Why would Luke here use a well-known term for priestly service?”

Ernest Best may have the answer (Ernest Best, “Acts 13:1-3,” The Journal of Theological Studies 11:2 (October 1960): 344-48.) As he convincingly argues, Luke is here equating the commissioning of Barnabas and Saul with the commissioning of the Levites in Nm 8:10-26. In Acts 13:2-4, Luke remarkably uses many of the same key terms found in Numbers 8. Just as God set apart (ἀφορίζω, 13:2 = Nm 8:11) and commissioned (ἐπιθήσουσιν … τὰς χεῖρας αὐτῶν, 13:3 = Nm 8:10, 12) the temple ministry (λειτουργία, 13:2 = Nm 8:22, 25, 26) of the Levites for a work (τὰ ἔργα, 13:2 = Nm 8:11, 15, 19) for the Lord (κυρίου, 13:2 = Nm 8:10-22), the Holy Spirit set apart Barnabas and Saul and commissioned them for a work for the Lord.

For Luke’s readers, his figurative use of this special term (λειτουργέω) triggers this connection with the Levites’ commissioning. Luke’s term is remarkably similar to Paul’s figurative temple terminology to describe “the grace that was given me from God, to be a minister (λειτουργόν) of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles, ministering as a priest (ἱερουργοῦντα) the gospel of God, so that my offering (προσφορὰ) of the Gentiles may become acceptable (εὐπρόσδεκτος), sanctified by the Holy Spirit” (Rom 15:15-16).

So, what activities are in Luke’s mind when he uses the term λειτουργούντων in Acts 13:2? Some scholars think that λειτουργούντων is a reference to praying. However, prayer is never mentioned as part of the work of λειτουργέω or λειτουργία in any of the 150 passages in the OT or in any of the other 14 passages in the NT. Prayer also does not make good sense as a figurative sense of priestly services. Since any Jew can pray (not just priests), how is praying an example of priestly services? Plus, if Luke wanted to convey the idea of prayer, he could have simply said, “While they were praying and fasting …”

Rather, λειτουργούντων likely refers to the five’s ministry of prophecy and teaching (“prophets and teachers,” 13:1). It is the only other previous activity that Luke identifies for these five. Consequently, Luke is using λειτουργούντων as a flattering way to depict the special ministry of these prophets and teachers, as he records the elevation of Saul and Barnabas from their esteemed role as prophets and teachers to their new appointment—by the Holy Spirit—as apostles. As the BDAG lexicon notes, “Through the use of this term (λειτουργέω) NT writers suggest an aura of high status for those who render any type of service.”

In 1 Cor 12:28, Paul alludes to the status of apostles as one level higher than prophets and teachers: “God has appointed in the church, first apostles, second prophets, third teachers.” Since apostles, prophets, and teachers are all mentioned in Acts, Luke was probably also aware of this hierarchical structure. Armed with this better understanding of λειτουργέω and the ἀπόστολοι, it seems likely that the purpose of Acts 13:1-4 is to record the pivotal event when Paul and Barnabas are elevated from their esteemed ministry as prophets and teachers to their higher ministry as apostles. By using the term λειτουργούντων, Luke conjures up the cultic image of devoted priests, to speak highly of their service “to the Lord,” and to set up the scene of their commissioning as apostles.

So, when Luke uses λειτουργούντων, he is not describing a “worship service,” he is not identifying the five as “liturgists,” nor are they “worshiping” in the modern sense of singing and praying in assembly. Such assumptions are the likely result of anachronism, i.e., applying modern concepts to this ancient scene. The translation “ministering to the Lord” is better than the misleading “worshiping the Lord.” Better still is “engaging in priestly service to the Lord,” which brings out Luke’s intentional and metaphorical connotations of priestly service.

Vine’s, Strong’s, and other lexicons include “worship” as a definition of προσκυνέω. Why do you think these lexicons are wrong?

Before I talk about the lexicons, I want to make clear that my central conclusions about the Christian assembly are not affected by my conclusions about the definition of προσκυνέω. Regardless of how you define προσκυνέω, it still remains a fact that the word is never used in the New Testament to describe the purpose of the Christian assembly or to describe any of the activities of a Christian assembly.

But let’s define προσκυνέω. I’m familiar with how the various lexicons define προσκυνέω. I have nine of them in my library, and I consulted them all when I spent months researching this issue for my dissertation.

And yes, I think they’re wrong about προσκυνέω. I know that’s a bold statement, but I think the evidence is overwhelming.

You can find my 35-page paper on this topic at my website. But here is a short version.

In order to determine the meaning of a Greek word used in the New Testament, you must study the context of how the word is used wherever it is found. As one of my doctoral Greek professors emphatically said, “Context determines meaning … and nothing else. It’s true in all languages.”

For my research on προσκυνέω, I studied the context of all 265 times when προσκυνέω is used in the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint) and the Greek New Testament. You’re welcome to do the same study.

I found that the lexicons—and the English translations of the Bible—decided that, when προσκυνέω is performed before a person, the word should be translated as “prostrate” or “bow down.” But they (wrongly) decided that when προσκυνέω is performed before deity, the word should be translated as “worship.”

Why were they wrong? Because it’s obvious that, in both contexts—when προσκυνέω is done before people and when προσκυνέω is done before deity—the person is performing prostration.

Why is it obvious? Because the same “prostration indicators” are found in both contexts: προσκυνέω before people and προσκυνέω before deity. Within the context of dozens of these verses, προσκυνέω is found with these “prostration indicators,” such as “fall down” and προσκυνέω, “kneeling” and προσκυνέω, performing προσκυνέω “on the ground,” performing προσκυνέω “on the face,” or performing προσκυνέω “at the feet” of the one being honored.

In other words, in the Bible, we find people falling down on their face or on the ground to perform προσκυνέω before people, and they are doing the same thing when performing προσκυνέω before deity.

So, when translators translate προσκυνέω with “worship” or when lexicons define προσκυνέω as “worship,” they are not translating the term, they are interpreting the action of prostration. They should rather simply translate the term as “prostration” and let the readers then do their own interpretation of what the prostrator may have meant by the gesture of prostration.

There is much more to this issue, which you can read in my 35-page paper on this topic.

“Worship” is mentioned frequently in the book of Revelation. How does the worship portrayed in Revelation inform our meetings?

Short answer: I think Revelation provides very few insights that affect the Christian gathering.

Longer answer: The Greek word προσκυνέω appears in Revelation 24 times. Even though most English Bibles translate προσκυνέω as “worship” throughout the book, the lexical evidence indicates that the word refers to prostrating oneself. (See my answer to the previous question.)

In modern English culture, the word “worship” commonly connotes ideas of singing, praying, or conducting liturgy in a so-called “worship service.” However, in the 265 times the word is used in the Septuagint and the NT, the context gives no indication that προσκυνέω connotes singing, praying, or the conducting of liturgy. There are four times in the Septuagint when προσκυνέω appears in the same context as singing, but the context indicates that the two activities (prostrating and singing) are separate and distinct.

Whenever προσκυνέω is being performed before deity or in the context of a deity’s temple, dozens of passages clearly indicate that the word refers to prostration. Frequently, in the LXX and the NT, the context surrounding προσκυνέω includes several additional terms indicating that the word connotes prostration. I call these words “prostration indicators.”

In Revelation, these prostration indicators continue to be used with προσκυνέω. For example, πίπτω (to fall down) and προσκυνέω (to prostrate) appear together before the throne in Rev 4:10; 5:14; 7:11; 11:16; 19:4; cf. 5:8; 19:10; 22:8-9. An additional prostration indicator is found in two of these verses, where those performing προσκυνέω are also “on their faces” (Rev 7:11; 11:16). Four of these verses in Revelation mention that they are “before” the throne, which is a prostration indicator showing their prostrated position in front of the deity (Rev 4:10; 7:11; 11:16; 15:4; cf. Rv 3:9; 4:4-5; 5:8; 7:9, 15; 8:2-4; 9:13; 11:4; 14:3; 20:12).

Rev 11:1 is a good example. Throughout Revelation, those who surround God on the throne (a likely temple reference) are described five times as “falling down” (πίπτω) and performing προσκυνέω, which is the standard way of describing prostration throughout the Septuagint and NT. As John explains a few verses later, in Rev 11:16, “The twenty-four elders, who sit on their thrones before God, fell on their faces and prostrated to God” (προσεκύνησαν τῷ θεῷ). Here, the text includes “fell,” “on their faces,” and “before God,” which often accompany the idea of prostrating in a temple.

So, even though all the major English Bibles (KJV, NIV, ESV, NASB, NRSV, etc.) ignore these obvious prostration indicators and translate προσκυνέω in Rev 11:1 as “worship,” the word clearly means prostration: “measure the temple of God and the altar, and those who prostrate in it.” This understanding is consistent with the common picture of temple prostration throughout the LXX and NT.

So, as you asked, “How does the worship portrayed in Revelation inform our meetings?” Actually, all these 24 references to προσκυνέω have nothing to do with Christian gatherings in the first century. Rather, they simply indicate that the common obligatory gesture when someone approached a deity in a temple was perform ritual prostration.

Revelation draws a distinction between those who prostrate (προσκυνέω) before the Beast and those who prostrate (προσκυνέω) before God. Revelation was written at a time when the Roman emperor had designated himself as a god, which was a blasphemous act to Jews and Christians. Assuming the role of deity, the emperor was requiring people to prostrate before his statue in the imperial temples that had been erected throughout the region of the seven cities of Revelation (Pergamum, Sardis, Thyatira, Philadelphia, Ephesus, Laodicea, Smyrna). For Christians, the act of prostrating to Caesar or offering him a sacrifice was idolatry and an abominable betrayal of the one true God (Rev 13:15-17; 20:4; cf. Ex 20:5; et al.).

For more on this topic, see my video on The Real Meaning of Worship and my video on The Temple That Changed Everything.